Language can be used in
two ways – literally and figuratively. Literal language is
direct and uses the real definition and meanings of words and phrases. But when
we talk figuratively, the meaning of any word/phrase will depend on the
context in which they are used. A figure of speech relies on
such. Therefore, figures of speech are words or phrases used in a
figurative sense for rhetorical or vivid effect. They carry connotative or
deeper meanings. In other words, their actual meanings are different from their
literal or ordinary meanings. For example, the expression, The man
kicked the bucket, literally or ordinarily means "the man kicked
bucket," but figuratively means "the man has died." When a
speaker uses this expression to mean the latter, the expression becomes a
figure of speech; otherwise, it is just an everyday expression.
Features of Figures of
Speech
1. The meanings of
figures of speech are usually connotative rather than denotative. In other
words, their actual meanings are usually different from their surface or
literal meanings.
2. They are not everyday
expressions. They are used only when necessary since they are used to achieve
rhetoric or vivid effect.
Types of Figures of
Speech
1. Simile
Simile is an indirect
comparison. It is the use of "like" or "as" to compare two
things of unequal status. The two things compared must be of different nature
or class. You can compare humans to lower animals or inanimate objects,
shoe to a charcoal etc. If the two things compared are of equal status, it is
not simile despite the use of "like" or "as."
Examples
i. Chima looks
like a dog. (Correct)
ii. Chima looks
like Emma. (Wrong)
iii. Tammy is
as gentle as a dove. (Correct)
iv. Tammy is
as gentle as his brother. (Wrong)
2. Metaphor
Metaphor shows a direct
comparison of two things of unequal status. In this case,
you do not use "as" or "like." Just like simile, the two
things under comparison must not belong to the same class.
Examples
i. Chima is a dog.
ii. Tammy is a dove.
Simile and Metaphor are
also known as figures of similarity or comparison.
3. Hyperbole
It is a device that
exaggerates the actual situation being represented maybe to produce either a
heightened or comic effect.
Examples
i. Tammy is taller than a
two-storey building.
ii. The woman swallows
everybody in her mouth.
It is obvious that the above
statements are exaggerated. Tammy may be very tall, but not as tall as (let
alone taller than) a two-storey building. On the other hand, the woman may have
a big mouth, but it cannot everybody.
4. Personification
This is the idea of
giving human attributes to inanimate objects.
Examples
i. The sun travelled
gently from east to west.
ii. The rain beats the
man mercilessly.
5. Assonance
This is the repetition of
the same vowel sound in a line of poem.
Examples
i. I saw the dead
devil. –The /e/ sound.
ii. He touched the hot
pot. –The /ɒ/ sound.
iii. The bat is in
a bad basket. –The /æ/ sound.
6. Alliteration
Alliteration is the
opposite of assonance. It is the repetition of the same consonant sound in a
line of poem.
Examples
i. Some stupid
students stole our shoes. – The /s/ sound.
ii. She was delivered of
a bouncing baby boy. –The /b/ sound.
7. Onomatopoeia
This is the use of a
word, which through its sound, its meaning can be directly inferred. In other
words, you can deduce the meaning of the word through the sound. At times, we
refer to this literary term as echoic verse.
Examples
i. Boom, boom, so went the
gunshots.
ii. The pitter patter of
the rain.
iii. The buzz of the bee.
8. Irony
This is the use of words
in such a way that the surface meaning is purely opposite to the intended
meaning.
Example
"Wow! You are a
brilliant child; you scored 1/10 in your test."
This shows that the
preceding praise, "You are a brilliant child," is not really genuine
though a listener may not quickly note the purpose, but on careful reflection,
he laughs at the character being described maybe because of the word, "brilliant."
9. Euphemism
It is a way of expressing
an unpleasant situation in a mild or pleasant way.
Examples
i. "The man has
kicked the bucket." This means the man is dead or has died.
ii. Amina has been put in
the family way.
The second example is the
Nigerian way of mildly expressing that a young girl who is not married and is
still living with her parents is pregnant although it can sometimes be used for
married women who are pregnant.
10. Paradox
It is a statement which
appears to be untrue on the surface but contains some elements of truth if
inwardly examined.
Examples
i. He, who must die,
shall live; he, who must live, shall die.
ii. The egg is the father
of the cock.
11. Sarcasm
It is a kind of painful
remark meant to hurt someone in disguise of eulogising them.
Examples
i. She looks beautiful
after the beating.
ii. These are the holy
men who will enter paradise alive.
iii. Buhari's WAEC result
is the best you can have; it can accord you the presidential seat.
12. Synecdoche
This is the use of a part
to represent a whole or a whole to represent a part.
Examples
i. All hands must
be on deck to make sure we finish the job on time.
ii. Uneasy lies the heart that
bears the crown.
iii. Nigeria was said to
be the most populous African country by the last head count.
Hands, heart and head are
all used to represent humans (people).
13. Metonymy
It is the representation
of something or somebody with an object associated or related to it or them.
Examples
i. "The pulpit should
be careful." In this instance, pulpit means clergymen.
ii. "The change
of throne is not an easy task." Throne means kingship in
this instance.
iii. "There are
many skirts and trousers along the
road." Skirts and trousers refer to girls and boys respectively.
Synecdoche and metonymy
are somewhat similar. However, in synecdoche, you use a body part (of humans)
to represent all humans whereas in metonymy, you use an item associated with a
group of people or things to represent every member of that group.
14. Oxymoron
This is the side-by-side
placement of two contradictory words.
Examples
i. This drink has a bitter-sweet taste.
ii. The death of the boy
has become an open secret.
iii. Labour, for women,
is a painful pleasure.
iv. I can't stay in
this illuminating darkness.
15. Epigram
It is a short and witty
statement that has philosophical meaning. In other words, it is used to express
ideas in a brief and memorable manner. It often embodies apparent contradiction
and some bit of satire.
Examples
i. Nothing is permanent
but change.
ii. Every poet is a fool,
but not every fool is a poet.
16. Antithesis
This is the use of
contrastive words or phrases to express an idea.
Examples
i. Man proposes, God
disposes.
ii. Penny wise, pound
foolish.
17. Repetition
It is the recurrence of words
for purpose of emphasis.
Examples
i. Twinkle, Twinkle
little star...
ii. Rain, Rain, go
away...
iii. He that will come,
will come.
18. Pun
It is the deliberate play
upon words. It may be used in a way that a particular word is repeated while its
meaning may not be really apparent.
Examples
i. Better be late than be
late.
ii. Seven days of fasting
make one weak/week.
19. Rhetorical question
It is a question that
does not require an answer. It is a question asked for literary effect in one's writing
or speech.
Examples
i. Oh God, why me?!
ii. Who can battle with
the Lord?
iii. God, where are you?!
20. Litotes
It is a statement of fact
in the negative to express a concept or an idea.
Examples
i. "She is not
wise." This means she is foolish.
ii. "Mr Tamuno is a
no-nonsense person." This means Mr Tamuno is strict.
21. Allusion
It is an act of making
reference either to events, persons, society or history.
Example
Obedience to God is an
act bearing the cross. (Biblical allusion).
22. Apostrophe
It is a form of direct
address to a person or object not present as if the person or thing being
addressed is present.
Examples
i. O' death, where is thy
sting?
ii. O' grave, where is
thy victory?
23. Symbolism
It is an image or word
that stands for something rather than the literary meaning. When a symbol is
used in Literature, the purpose is to give it a meaning which goes beyond the
physical representation. For example, the eagle in the coat of arms of Nigeria
symbolises the pride of Nigeria.
24. Climax
This is the arrangement
of ideas, items in an ascending order. Here, one starts from the lowest to the
highest. The effect is to arouse suspense in a listener or reader.
Examples
i. David Clark lost his
pen, money, two children and beautiful wife in a day.
ii. I came, I saw, I
conquered.
25. Anticlimax
This is the opposite of
climax. It progresses from the highest to the lowest.
Example
David Clark lost his
beautiful wife, two children, money and pen in a day.
26. Innuendo
This is another ironical
figure of speech. It is a clever way of passing unpleasant comments.
Here, the speaker selects his words in such a way that the person being
addressed understands the underlying message, yet doesn't get offended or feel
insulted.
Example
Tammy is a very honest
man, especially with matters unconnected with money.
27. Paraprosdokian
Read about paraprosdokian here.
28. Bathos
This is when you present
a declining impression from something impressive to a ridiculous one. For
example, "It is better to live in hell than to die in heaven."
29. Chiasmus
This is a reversal of the
order of words by corresponding phrases occurring in a sentence.
Examples
i. Do not think of what
your country can do for you, but what you can do for your country.
ii. "Do not fear to
negotiate, and do not negotiate out of fear." – J. F. Kennedy.
30. Hendiadys
This is a figure of
speech used for emphasis, where two words joined by "and" are used to
express a single idea. For instance, instead of simply saying "Tammy took
his leave," we may rather say, "Tammy took his hat and his leave."
This makes it look as if it were two things that were taken.
31. Prolepsis
This is a representation
or an assumption of a future act or development as if it has been accomplished.
For instance, a student who is anticipating his Senior School Certificate
Examination (SSCE) result may boastfully say to his friends: "I have made
A1 in all my papers."
32. Antonomasia
This is the use of a
proper name to suggest its most obvious quality or aspect. For example, Wole
Soyinka is often called William Shakespeare of our time. This is due to his
literary prowess which is only comparable to that of William Shakespeare.
